Class Acts

Into the Eye

With his new documentary feature, director Miko Lim ’02 takes SXSW by storm.

Miko Lim self portraitWhen he first saw a photo of Hurricane Katrina taken by storm chaser Jeff Gammons, Miko Lim ’02 felt as if he was looking at a nebula in outer space. “I was immediately drawn to it,” says Lim, a filmmaker based in Los Angeles. “Everybody else’s work seemed to capture a lot of death and destruction, but his was such an artistic take on natural phenomena.”

Lim hired Gammons, a photographer and videographer, for a commercial he was directing, and after the shoot they kept talking. Those conversations led Lim—who has directed campaigns for Adidas, Nike and Disney and won a Clio for his short film Ocean Mother—to embark on his first feature documentary. Stormbound, which chronicles Gammons’ life and pursuit of extreme storms, had its premiere at South by Southwest (SXSW) in March, where it won the Special Jury Award for Best Feature Documentary, followed by a European debut at CPH:DOX in Copenhagen.

Lim was drawn to Gammons’ life story not only because he braved life-threatening storms and captured them in all their sublime beauty, but because he did so while battling a litany of illnesses and diseases, including spinal cancer and heart and kidney failure.

“This is a guy who’s been dealt the worst possible hand health-wise,” says Lim, “and yet he is still driven to go out into the world and see it with marvel and wonder and hope. It was very inspiring to me.”

After initial meetings with studios more interested in the newsworthy angle of the story than in the personal journey he wanted to share, Lim met Adam McKay (The Big Short, Vice), who understood his vision and signed on as executive producer. With McKay on board, IMAX quickly bought into the project, providing funding and access to the full array of IMAX cameras.

“It was a wonderfully hard experience,” says Lim. “There’s a reason why people just film these things on their phones and GoPros. We were out there lugging 80-pound cameras the size of a fridge into these storms.”

Miko Lim filming Stormbound with an IMAX camera.

Miko Lim filming Stormbound with an IMAX camera.

Using IMAX cameras was important to Lim because they are “inherently more cinematic” than digital cameras. As well as the “fun impossibility of it,” he also appreciated the taller aspect ratio, which is more similar to an old TV than the modern widescreen format.

“So much of this film is literally and metaphorically about looking up. So having a screen this high allowed us to frame things where we can still see our subjects down at the bottom, but we can see the sky opening up and exploding in front of them all in one image rather than having to pan up.”

Premiering the film at SXSW seemed fitting, he says, given that Texas is at the bottom of Tornado Alley and the documentary takes place almost entirely on the roads of the U.S.

A pre-med student at Pomona, Lim realized while doing an oncology research project at UCLA that he might not be able to handle the emotional toll of being a doctor. Having taken a creative writing elective with David Foster Wallace, he decided to tap into his artistic side and applied for a script reader job on Craigslist.

That turned out to be an internship at Angelina Jolie and Billy Bob Thornton’s production company. “I walked in blind to that, just trying out something new, and that got me into the idea of using my imagination and creating things. That gave me the bug.”

Lim still takes on occasional commercial work. It can be creatively liberating, he says, and it is also lucrative (he has three kids). Recently, he has been moving more into TV and has started writing his first narrative feature.

“I’m very interested right now in these tiny, intimate stories about people in massive worlds that feel otherworldly,” he says. “You get older and you feel like this world is such a big, magical place, and you’re so small in it, and it’s not a bad thing. Your little story is just as exciting and lovely as the story of the whole universe.”

 

Making Her Met Debut

Lucy Shelton ’65 takes to the famous stage for the first time at age 82.

Lucy Shelton Portrait

Photo by KARJAKA STUDIOS

When soprano Lucy Shelton ’65 celebrated her 75th birthday in 2019 with a special concert in Manhattan’s Merkin Hall, she thought it might be her last public performance. Shelton, who is internationally acclaimed for her work in contemporary music, performed that night with more than a dozen colleagues and former students and sang several pieces that had been written especially for her over the years.

It could have been a fitting finale to an extraordinary career. But that’s not how it turned out. Since 2021, Shelton has sung on stages around the world—in Aix-en-Provence, Helsinki, London, Amsterdam, San Francisco and Adelaide—as The Teacher in Kaija Saariaho’s final opera Innocence and, in 2024, in a role tailor-made for her in the world premiere of Laura Kaminsky’s chamber opera Lucidity.

When Innocence, which tells the story of a school shooting and its aftermath, premiered at the Metropolitan Opera in April, Shelton made her debut at that hallowed institution at the age of 82.

Shelton’s explanation for her career’s longevity? “I simply love making music.” Beyond that, she thinks she is still able to sing “because I’ve used my voice in many different ways over all of these decades and always found ways to meet the various challenges of the repertoire.”

The distinctive feature in her dramatic role in Innocence is that it primarily uses sprechstimme (speechsong) rather than traditional operatic singing. Shelton is renowned for this expressive style developed in the early 20th century. Saariaho knew of her mastery of sprechstimme and had Shelton in mind when composing the role.

Lucy Shelton ’65 as The Teacher in Innocence

Lucy Shelton ’65 as The Teacher in Innocence

Shelton grew up in Claremont (her father was a Pomona College geology professor and grad) and music was a frequent family activity—her parents met at a music camp in Massachusetts. All five children took piano lessons and studied another instrument as well. Shelton remembers “singing rounds and Bach chorales and silly versions of Christmas carols, where we experimented with sliding between pitches and making weird dissonances. Even as a kid I loved the tension of dissonance and the beautiful release of the consonance that followed!”

After attending Vermont’s Putney School, a high school with an “extraordinary music program,” Shelton entered Pomona College. “I knew how wonderful music at Pomona was, having attended concerts at Big and Little Bridges all my life. Bill Russell, Doc Blanchard and Karl Kohn were all family friends and neighbors.”

While a music major at Pomona, Shelton played flute in the band and orchestra and sang in Choir and Glee club. She took leading roles in the annual Gilbert and Sullivan productions, garnering admiration from fellow students including Deb Hunter ’65. “I followed her because she was quite a star,” says Hunter. “She was just very special even then.”

Hunter, along with 37 other members of the Class of ’65, attended the Met production of Innocence, celebrating their classmate with a reception and dinner after the matinee performance. “I intended to go myself,” says Hunter, “and just threw out the idea at our 60th reunion.”

Debuting at the Met was never a goal for Shelton, whose calendar was already filled with exciting performing opportunities. “It was never something I had imagined or even hoped for,” she says. “I’m delighted—it is a big deal, obviously! But the main big deal is that this opera is such a stunner.”

After all those performances around the world (and she will again sing the role in Paris in November of 2027), Shelton still finds herself moved by the opera. “It is a sublimely devastating drama with astounding music from Saariaho. It still gets me.”

Four Throw Threat

William Marquart ’26 is seeing success in shot, discus, javelin and hammer.

William Marquart ’26 seen throwing a track-and-field shot put

The symptoms started appearing early last fall, each more ominous than the last.

A burly lineman and thrower his first three years at Pomona, William Marquart ’26 lost 45 pounds between September and October. He’d convinced himself a stomach bug was to blame. Surely his muscle mass would return once he recovered.

But why was he having trouble concentrating? And why couldn’t he sleep? And why was his vision deteriorating? “This will all go by,” he thought.

Only when the symptoms became unbearable did Marquart go to the hospital, where he was admitted to the ICU immediately. A doctor told him it was a miracle he could still walk. “You should be in a coma right now.”

Marquart, a biology major from Woodway, Washington, was diagnosed with severe diabetic ketoacidosis, a life-threatening medical emergency requiring immediate and monitored care. Having dealt with autoimmune conditions his entire life—vitiligo, hypothyroidism—he’d gotten used to downplaying warning signs.

“But last semester everything finally caught up with me,” he says.

Once diagnosed and on the proper medication, Marquart returned to the weight room to regain his strength. Doctors recommended he limit himself to 1,300 calories a day, an impossible charge for a 280-pound athlete who needed north of 5,500 calories a day to throw competitively.

Fully healthy this past spring, Marquart was stronger than he was last May, when he became the first Sagehens thrower in 40 years to put the shot farther than 50 feet.

“A big part of throws is body awareness,” he says. “It’s making sure your body is at its peak, and you’re not just strong, but also athletic. You see plenty of strong people try and fail in these events because they don’t know how to use that strength properly.”

While throwing the shot, discus, javelin and hammer can get repetitive, Marquart used each practice in the spring to hone the quirks of his implement and avoid falling into any bad habits.

After becoming the first men’s thrower since 2017 to etch his name in the Sagehens record book last season, Marquart’s personal records in 2026 replaced program marks previously held for decades.

He reached 55’-10.5” in the shot put on March 20, a distance second only to Pomona-Pitzer Hall of Famer Ray Fogg ’75, whose record toss of 58’-10.5” in 1974 remains the oldest track and field mark in Sagehens history.

Elsewhere on the field, Marquart’s top distances in the javelin (187’-10”) and discus (151’-7”) this past spring ranked eighth and ninth all-time, respectively.

“Will brings deep thoughtfulness and explosive quickness to his throwing,” track and field coach Kirk Reynolds says. “To have success in all four throws is remarkable.”

When Marquart wasn’t refining his throwing technique, he was studying for the MCAT, which he plans to take during his upcoming gap year before applying for medical school.

At Pomona, he had the chance to do research “I would never have gotten access to until I was post-grad or a professional,” he says. “I’ve been doing research since my sophomore year, and I’m really glad I’ve been able to build connections and get out there so soon.”

“Pomona was exactly what I was looking for,” he adds. “Small school, phenomenal academics and pre-med program, amazing professors who have a personal investment in their students. This was the perfect fit.”

A Tale of Two Mayoral Runs

Jersey City’s James Solomon ’06 has seen how cities work in St. Louis, Chicago & Boston—then became mayor of “Chill Town.”

By Marilyn Thomsen

James Solomon and daughter

Ward E Councilman James Solomon was elected as Mayor of Jersey City and celebrated with family and the community at MANA Contemporary. Shot on December 02 2025. Photo by Jennifer Brown/City of Jersey City

In December James Solomon ’06 was elected mayor of Jersey City after two rounds of voting, outperforming six other candidates in a marathon of a race that included a runoff election and that lasted more than a year from when he announced his candidacy.

Solomon sees Jersey City’s future at stake as it becomes increasingly unaffordable. His campaign focused on independence from developers and insider politics, creating affordable housing, keeping city streets safe, and creating more summer and afterschool job programs.

“My hope and vision is that [the city] remains one of the most diverse in the country and a place where people come to start their lives in America,” he says.

Its location provides a visible reminder of that promise. Just across the Hudson River from Jersey City is Ellis Island—for centuries America’s Golden Door.

“Our nickname is ‘Chill Town,’” says Solomon, contrasting Jersey City with frenetic neighbor New York, located just a mile away by water. He says that its future will see arts and culture and small businesses thriving, and the government delivering for the people.

Solomon studied public policy analysis at Pomona, where he appreciated professors’ passion for public service and their prioritization of the oft-forgotten piece of policy implementation.

“We think about passing laws,” he explains, “but very rarely about once the law is passed, how do you ensure that it is implemented in a way to make a real-world impact?”

After college Solomon spent four years in St. Louis and Chicago developing a passion for city government and seeing its direct effect on people’s lives. Solomon then spent two years studying at Harvard University’s Kennedy School of Government, learning both in the classroom and while working for Boston Mayor Thomas Menino.

“If a pothole wasn’t filled and your car broke an axle, that could really screw up your month,” he says. “The day-to-day impacts are in your face.”

Solomon hears from residents daily and often reflects on the pervasive sense they get that their government doesn’t care about them. Cities, he says, deserve “a government as good as its people”—a concept that he is now hoping to deliver to his constituents.


The youngest U.S. attorney in the nation, Albuquerque’s Alex Uballez ’08 led the DEA’s largest-ever fentanyl bust.

By Brian Whitehead

This fall Alex Uballez ’08, a former U.S. attorney for the District of New Mexico, ran for mayor of Albuquerque and surprised many insiders and pundits by finishing third in the race with 19 percent of the vote, forcing a runoff between the incumbent and the favored challenger.

For those who know him, it wasn’t a surprise that he would be destined for big things. Philosophy Professor Michael J. Green recalls Uballez’s senior thesis on green consumerism and sustainable development being one of the two best theses he read
that year.

“It had really interesting discussions of abstract and social theory and a lot of historical research about environmentalism,” Green says. “That’s when I got the idea he could change the world.”

Uballez and his wife Gabrielle

Uballez and his wife Gabrielle

Uballez and his wife Gabrielle met on campus—the respective politics, philosophy and economics (PPE) and art majors hitting it off as first-years. It was Gabrielle, in fact, who convinced him to apply to Columbia Law School, from which he graduated in 2011. They then moved to her native Albuquerque, where he started his career as a state prosecutor specializing in crimes against children. In 2016 he became a federal prosecutor focusing on drug trafficking cartels in the U.S. and south of the border.

In 2022 President Joe Biden nominated him to serve as U.S. attorney for the District of New Mexico. He led an agency of 180 federal prosecutors and staff that he instilled to think beyond investigations and prosecutions to effect change.

“We thought about how to intervene and prevent,” he says. “How to see public safety through a broader lens than the court system.”

Besides leading the largest fentanyl bust in DEA history, Uballez also created Albuquerque’s Violence Intervention Program. His office uncovered 30 years of public corruption in the Albuquerque Police Department’s DWI Unit, and also established New Mexico’s first Federal Reentry Program for people returning home after incarceration.

Alex Uballez

From Frary to Finland: Going Pro With Joe Cookson ’25

Joe Cookson on the courtThe Atlantic Ocean separates Joe Cookson ’25 from all that’s familiar.

After signing a contract this summer to play professional basketball with Finland’s Kipina Basket Aanekoski, the Seattle native landed in the Nordic country last fall to train for his rookie season.

Joe Cookson in actionWhile wholly unfamiliar with his new surroundings, Cookson was amped to continue his playing career more than 5,000 miles east of the place he called home for four years.

“This is something I’ve been working toward my whole life,” he says. “There’s a lot of excitement and eagerness to get started, but this is also a huge change of scenery. I’ve embraced the change because I know it’ll help shape me into who I’m supposed to be.”

Cookson, a 6-foot-6 guard who earned his degree in mathematics, finished his career at Pomona a three-time first-team all-conference honoree and one of the College’s most prolific scorers.

Pomona-Pitzer Career Scoring Leaders

Twenty-five Sagehens have scored more than 1,000 career points. Below are the top five:

1,825 Micah Elan (2016-20)

1,751 Bill Cover (1990-94)

1,744 Daniel Rosenbaum (2014-18)

1,709 Joe Cookson (2021-25)

1,545 Jeremiah Martin (1997-2001)

His 1,709 career points rank fourth in program history, and only two other Sagehens scored more points in a single season than he did as a senior (594). Cookson ranks ninth in career three-pointers made (144), seventh in assists (317) and tenth in blocks (106).

The Sagehens won 76 games across his four years and earned NCAA Tournament berths in 2021-22 and 2022-23.

Before leaving for Finland, Cookson traveled to Spain this summer with a collection of outgoing seniors from schools in the Southern California Intercollegiate Athletic Conference. In Finland Cookson has already picked up the locals’ love of saunas, and while Finnish is an especially difficult language to learn, “Everyone is super patient and super accommodating,” he says.

Cookson is one of three Americans on Kipina Basket Aanekoski, which won 17 games last season and advanced to the Meisten Divisioona IA semifinals. The team’s 2025-26 campaign runs through March.

A versatile scorer in college enamored with the detail and nuance of the game, Cookson is malleable in that he can adjust to any role he’s given—scorer, distributor, shooter.

There are limitless ways to play the game, he says. Here or an ocean away.

“Basketball is such an open book,” he says. “You just keep reading and keep discovering, and that’s what keeps me going.”

Hannah Gough ’25 Eyes Spot on Australia Lacrosse Team for 2026 World Cup, 2028 LA Olympics

Whether she’s in Sagehen blue or Australian gold, Hannah Gough ’25 commands attention on the lacrosse field.

The Adelaide native finished her Pomona career an All-American and three-time first-team all-conference honoree. The Sagehens won 76 games with Gough patrolling the midfield, never lost to rival Claremont-Mudd-Scripps and advanced twice to the NCAA Division III Elite Eight.

Hannah Gough ’25 playing lacrossGough now has her sights set on making the Australian national team bound for the 2026 World Cup in Tokyo and the 2028 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. (In January 2025 Gough helped Australia take silver at the 2025 Asia-Pacific Women’s Lacrosse Championship, punching the team’s ticket to the 2026 World Cup.) Gough later received an invitation to attend two World Cup trial camps this winter after serving as an alternate for Australia at The World Games in Chengdu, China.

Gough suited up for AustraliaGough started playing lacrosse at 7, always appreciating the sport’s physicality and intensity. Within a few years she was in Australia’s club circuit playing against adults. At 16 she outlasted hundreds of young women to earn a spot on the 2019 Under-19 Australian Women’s Team. As part of the team she trained at Loyola University Maryland, which inspired her to want to attend college and play lacrosse in the U.S.

An economics and international relations double major, she was recently one of 18 athletes to receive funding from the Australian Institute of Sport, making her eligible for the Olympic team.

“The Olympics are what every athlete dreams of,” she says. “There’s so much pride and so much love and excitement in playing for your country. It’s not something a lot of people get to do.”

Professor Goins Is Pomona’s First Elected President of Mathematical Association of America

Professor Edray GoinsProfessor Edray Goins was just elected president of the Mathematical Association of America (MAA), one of the country’s largest professional societies.

The first Black president in the MAA’s 110-year history, Goins has been an active member of the society’s Southern California-Nevada regional section, and campaigned on a platform of helping bridge the gap between the two often-siloed groups of math researchers and math educators. With the federal government terminating an increasing number of math grants, Goins also vowed to connect with private foundations to support math majors in need of financial support.

“I want to give people hope about what the future of the mathematics community can be,” Goins says. “Math isn’t just about having the majors or having the funding to do grants. It’s part of this larger community that has to tell people math is a cool, beautiful thing.”

Shark Mutulili ’25 Earns Pomona’s First Rhodes Scholarship in 20+ Years

This spring Shark Mutulili ’25, a public policy analysis major with a politics focus, was awarded a Rhodes Scholarship. The prestigious international fellowship is awarded to about 100 students each year, 32 from the United States and the rest from countries across the world.

Shark Mutulili ’25Mutulili was one of two students awarded the Rhodes Scholarship for Kenya. A Nairobi native, she is Pomona’s 13th Rhodes Scholar, second-ever female recipient and first since Peter Chiarelli ’03.

The oldest fellowship award in the world, the Rhodes covers all expenses to study at the University of Oxford for two or more years. Mutulili plans to pursue a Master of Public Policy at Oxford before returning back home to Kenya long-term.

Her ultimate hope is to “shape better systems to see the dignity in every human being,” she says.

When Mutulili learned she was one of 10 finalists for the Kenya award, she had to quickly make travel arrangements to fly to Kenya in less than a week for the final interview—a flight made possible by Pomona’s Office of the President. The day after the interview, while preparing to head to the airport, she received a congratulatory phone call. “I was jumping up and down,” she says. “I was in complete shock.”

Mutulili served as Pomona’s 2025 senior class president, leading committees to improve student life and foster community on campus.

“I wanted to serve and to understand the way people think, the things that bring them joy and the challenges they’ve gone through,” she says. “I’ve tried my best for this to be a senior year worth remembering.”

Her senior thesis focuses on comprehensive sex education to prevent gender-based violence against adolescent girls and women in Kenya. She looks at tribal knowledge, traditions and practices as well as colonial histories of education to understand how gender biases and power imbalances affect the policies that are created.

“Shark stands out at Pomona for her joyous spirit and her thoughtful and caring engagement across differences, whether of opinion, identity or discipline,” says President G. Gabrielle Starr. “We at Pomona are so proud of her and thrilled for her to take advantage of these new opportunities at Oxford.”

As a recently announced Napier Initiative Fellow, Mutulili will continue her work to improve living conditions for children and mothers in two rural prisons in Kenya, providing for immediate needs such as baby food, diapers and cots as well as working toward long-term goals such as improving sanitation, providing water tanks and creating child care spaces.

One of the first people Mutulili told about the Rhodes Scholarship was her academic advisor David Menefee-Libey, whom she says has been a staunch supporter at Pomona.

“Every time I talk with Shark, I learn about yet another amazing thing she’s been in the middle of,” says Menefee-Libey, the William A. Johnson Professor of Government. “And through all that she remains a kind and joyful person. I can’t wait to see what she does next.”

The 2025 Wig Distinguished Professor Awards

Seven faculty members—including five first-time honorees—were bestowed at Commencement with Wig Distinguished Professor Awards, recognizing their excellence in teaching, commitment to students, and service to the College and the community.

Presented annually since 1955, the awards involve anonymous votes from Pomona juniors and seniors that are then confirmed by a committee of trustees, faculty and students.

Malachai Bandy is an assistant professor of music who plays some 20 different instruments spanning more than 800 years of music history. His expertise includes viola da gamba technique, history and iconography; historical performance practice; and 17th-century North-German music.

Mietek P. Boduszyński is an associate professor of politics and expert on U.S. foreign policy, democratization, post-conflict stabilization, Eastern Europe and the Balkans, and the Middle East and North Africa.

J Finley is an associate professor of Africana studies whose research looks at Black women’s history, performance and cultural expression, and the performative and political efficacy of Black women’s humor and comedy.

Frances M. Hanzawa, an associate professor of biology who’s been at Pomona for 30+ years, conducts diverse research in ecology, evolution, plant ecology, genetic and demographic consequences of seed dispersal and plant-animal interactions.

Tom Le is an associate professor of politics with expertise in Japanese security policy, the U.S.–Japan alliance, military and security balance in East Asia and East Asia regionalism.

M. Bilal Nasir is an assistant professor of Asian American studies whose research interests include policing and surveillance, critical race studies, secularism, social movements, science and technology, and anthropology of Muslims and Islam.

Shahriar Shahriari is the William Polk Russell Professor of Mathematics and Statistics and now a six-time Wig Award recipient, with expertise in combinatorics of posets, extremal set theory, finite group theory, representation theory of finite groups and surreal numbers.

2025 Wig scholars: from left, Pomona Professors Shahriar Shahriari, Malachai Bandy, Frances M. Hanzawa and J Finley

From left, Pomona Professors Shahriar Shahriari, Malachai Bandy, Frances M. Hanzawa and J Finley

In Search of the First Lights That Lit Up the Cosmic Night

Erica Nelson ’08

Erica Nelson ’08

Erica Nelson ’08 is aiming beyond the stars, to the origin story of the universe. Thanks to the 2021 launch of the James Webb Space Telescope, Nelson is taking pictures of the very first galaxies to learn what the universe was like at the beginning of time.

That quest has landed the University of Colorado-Boulder assistant professor of astrophysics on CBS’s 60 Minutes and NPR’s Science Friday—and on an episode of the Pomona College podcast Sagecast, where she and her undergraduate mentor, Philip Choi, associate professor of physics and astronomy, explained the paradigm-shifting potential of what she and her colleagues have discovered.

How Pomona developed her interest:

I remember my first astrophysics classes and being absolutely blown away by the scale of the universe and the incredibly complex physical processes that rule the universe on large scales. We can use powerful telescopes to effectively look back in time. As a kid I found that concept so mind-blowing that I couldn’t imagine spending my days thinking about anything else.

One of my favorite Pomona memories solidified that I wanted to teach and help the next generation. We had a computer programming assignment for Philip Choi’s class, and it was awful because I was so bad at coding. But Phil took the time to work through it with me until midnight. It was such an act of kindness and really launched me on my journey.

Her research focus:

I’m looking for new methods to understand how galaxies and black holes form and evolve. Powerful telescopes like the Webb allow us to see really, really great distances. That means we can see light that’s been traveling for almost the entire age of the universe, from close to the beginning of time itself. We’re able to see how the universe and the galaxies in it evolved, and that allows us to piece together their origin story.

Galaxy cluster Abell S1063

Galaxy cluster Abell S1063. Courtesy European Space Agency

Finding a surprise in Webb images:

When the first images were released, the most surprising thing we saw was these objects that were very, very red. They had been completely invisible to the Hubble Telescope. We had to use all of the physics and astrophysics we knew to try to infer what those objects were. They are incredibly far away, close to the beginning of the universe. Yet the masses we inferred for them were even more massive than our Milky Way galaxy is now. According to our theories, the universe shouldn’t have had enough time to form things that were that massive that early. It was surprising and stunning and, if true, upends our views of how the first cosmic structures formed in the early universe.

The reaction of the astronomy community:

There have been hundreds of papers on these [red] objects, and we are still figuring out what they are. One of the things that is surprising is that some of the most luminous objects in the universe are actually “supermassive black holes” [upward of 10 billion times the size of the sun]. There are some theories that can explain some components of the light we’re seeing from these objects as growing, supermassive black holes of a type we’ve never seen before.

The reason black holes can be so luminous is that when mass falls into a black hole, an immense amount of gravitational energy is released. Some fraction of that energy can be converted into light we see in the form of accretion disks around the objects and in these black holes blowing out enormous jets. They show up in different ways, but the reason they are so luminous is because there is so much energy available from matter falling into them. The astrophysics community is completely undecided on what these objects are. They are a complete mystery that we’re still working very hard to solve it.

(Wide) open problems that remain:

A long-standing problem in extragalactic astrophysics is that at the center of every massive galaxy is a supermassive black hole, and we do not know how it got there.

One of the possibilities … is a direct collapse black hole. Most black holes are the end product of the evolution of stars, which are powered by nuclear fusion. Once the [stars] have used up all of their fuel, they no longer have anything to support them against the immense force of gravity, and they collapse. If they are massive enough, there is nothing that can prevent them from collapsing into black holes.

But that only gets you to black holes that are on the scale of the mass of a star. The thing we need at the center of these galaxies is black holes that are millions to billions of times the mass of a star. It’s the subject of a lot of debate how you actually get a black hole that massive.

One of the possibilities for some of this light we’re seeing in the very early universe—which we’ve recently found evidence for—is the formation of a supermassive black hole directly from a cloud of gas without forming any stars. They look like stars, but instead of being powered by nuclear fusion, they are powered by growing supermassive black holes inside of them.

These are very strange objects. Understanding them is still very much a work in progress. It’s challenging, but not impossible, to truly understand the formation of the first lights that lit up the cosmic night.

This interview has been edited for length and clarity. Listen to the full interview in Season 7 of the Sagecast Podcast.